|
Cabinetmaker: Treated together with Carpenter, Joiner, Mechanic, Craftsman. A Cabinetmaker is a woodworker who makes cabinets and the finer kind of joiner's work. Cabinetmakers work in solid wood, typically Hardwood, though Veneers of highly prized wood may be used for decorative purposes. As "finish" carpenters, Carpenters can work at the same level of excellence as cabinetmakers; mostly carpenters engage in the initial stages of construction, activities that lead up to the point where a construction needs finishing touches; for example, finish carpenters takeover where Moldings for ceilings and banisters for stairways are precisely cut and mounted.
For more on sorting out the distinctions among these terms, I have created a larger entry: click here.
Cabriole: [entry still needs more detail and organization 3-23-07] (click here for an illustration of QA chair with cabriole leg -- click here for more illustrations of cabriole legs ) This entry became too large, so I made a "cabriole leg annex"
As well as legs in furniture designs (box below), the Oxford English Dictionary links cabriole to ballet and horse's stepping, both of which served to bestow "cabriole" as an identifiable design feature on furniture:
4. A form of curved leg, frequent in Queen Anne and Chippendale furniture, so called from its resemblance to a quadruped's foreleg making a leap or caper.1888 J. MARSHALL in Catal. Exhib. Decor. Handiwork, Edin. 59 Settees and chairs with their cabriole legs and lion-claw feet. L. V. LOCKWOOD
1902Col. Furniture Amer. 56 Walnut and Inlay Cabriole-legged Dressing-table. H. C. CANDEE Decorative Styles and Periods in the Home
1907202 The cabriole leg is the one great point of this decorative period with which collectors..must arm themselves.
1966A. W. LEWIS Glossary of Woodworking Terms 11 Cabriole leg, furniture leg which curves outwards at the top and inwards at the bottom.
Calipers: also Dial Caliper and Micrometer Caliper. Variations include Compass, Divider, and other types of calipers, many noted below. [need to supplement this entry with the other types of tools that fall roughly into the same category.] See also Measurement.
A Caliper is
...[a] measuring instrument with a movable spindle for taking highly exact measurements.... Some such tools are capable of measuring a 10,000th of an inch.
(Anonymous article in 1935 Home Craftsman.)
Calipers are, according to Paul Hasluck (1903: 466),
... the tools used by the carpenter, but the turner uses them almost constantly for some jobs, whereas in ordinary carpentry they are used but seldom....
Further, Hasluck does not shy away from prescriptive comments:
For small callipers (sic) with which to measure up to a diameter of 2 114 in., the mild steel should be at least 314 in. wide and 1116 in. thick ; a length of 5 114 in. is sufficient for outside callipers, and 4 112 in. for inside ones. The washers may be 11/16 in, in diameter.
Called also "pair of calipers".
Calipers click here
Carbide and Carbide-tipped: See also Tool Steel [might be worth treating the two terms together 3-29-07] Carbide, as a term, according to the OED and my own Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology (1988) seems to have been coined circa 1865. However, check below for some recent evidence (3-29-07) about the use of the term in texts.
The "snippet" of text "Metallic Iron" shows an 1851, "first use" of the term, carbide, in Dr C. Remigius Fresenius (1818-1897), Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, page 140. (It comes from the database, Making of America , a full-text" database, and covers books and periodicals published in America between 1800 and 1920. Carbide-tipped development: Allen, Henry B. " Improvements in Steels for Wood Knives and Saws", American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Transactions, v. 53 WDI, pages 43-47, 1930. Discusses improvements in steels for wood knives and saws giving various types now in use and their relative value for different woods including present developments of cemented tungsten carbide.Carbide-tipped's Application to Amateur Woodworking (establishing date):
Some shaper cutter blades are carbide-tipped for much greater resistance to wear. As with other cutting tools, it is important to keep a sharp edge on the shaper cutters. Source: Herman Hjorth, “The Router”, Home Craftsman 18 1949, pages 56-57. A silicon carbide hone, especially shaped for router bits and shaper cutters, is available and is very useful for honing router bits and shaper cutters to keep them at peak cutting efficiency. It can be used on either high-speed steel or carbide-tipped tools.Source: Robert Campbell and N H Mager How to Work with Tools and Wood, Stanley 1952 page 312-315.
Carbide cutters have made a place for themselves and, when properly applied, run almost indefinitely without sharpening. Their use in saws and knives will increase as their qualities gain wider recognition. Source: Judson H. Mansfield, "Woodworking Machinery: History of Development from 1852—1952", Mechanical Engineering: The Journal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Dec 1952, pp 983-995.
Source: R J DeCristoforo, DeCristoforo's Complete Book of Power Tools, Both Stationary and Portable New York: Harper, 1972, page 178
Explaining Carbide:
Carbide Tipped Tools Sintered carbides are a natural evolution of the art of powder metallurgy. Powder metallurgy involves the production, by mechanical or chemical means, of a metal powder and the union of this powder, below the melting point of the major constituent, into a reasonably strong solid form. Mention has been made of the fact that high-speed steels contained quantities of carbide-forming elements. The elements in steel forming carbides in great quantities are chromium, tungsten and molybdenum. The powder metallurgist has developed the production of several sintered metallic carbides. Probably the best known of these is tungsten carbide, though much work has been done with carbides of tantalum, molybdenum, aluminum, zirconium, and columbium. Basically, the production of these carbides is about the same as that of tungsten carbide. Tungsten is recovered from the ore by chemical means as metallic powder, freed of acid and water, and further reduced in a hydrogen atmosphere furnace to assure production of pure metallic tungsten powder. Variations of the conditions of production will vary the grain size and shape of the resultant metallic tungsten, which will vary the character of the tungsten carbide ultimately produced. The pure tungsten powder is mixed with pure carbon in the form of lampblack in the ratio of 94 to 6 by weight. The thoroughly mixed tungsten and carbon are packed in graphite containers and heated, converting the mechanical mixture into a chemical compound. This chemical compound, true tungsten carbide, is broken up, ball-milled to proper size, mixed with a binding agent, and reformed to shape under pressure and again sintered. The carbide is now in final form possible of production in various grades dependent on the ingredients.
Source: R J DeCristoforo, DeCristoforo's Complete Book of Power Tools, Both Stationary and Portable New York: Harper, 1972, page 178
From R J DeCristoforo, The Table Saw Book Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1988. pp 71-73:
(Of all authors of woodworker's manuals, I think that I admire the most DeCristoforo's careful step-by-step progression, especially when he introduces concepts he thinks will be unknown by his readers. His strength is that he recognizes that many readers, especially newbies -- are not acquainted with the vocabulary in the field, and -- so limited -- without some background information, do not readily adequately understand what is being described. An example of what I mean about DeCristoforo's style is in the boxed area below.)
Saw Blades with Tungsten-Carbide Teeth
It wasn't too long ago that carbide-tipped saw blades became generally available. Now they are available in as many concepts as you will find in all-steel blades. The basic ones are designed as combination units, or specifically for crosscutting or ripping (Fig. 4-25). One of the major advantages of a carbide-tipped blade is that, if it is correctly used and maintained, it will stay sharp longer than a steel blade. Another as-set is that the teeth on a carbide blade cut a wider kerf than the blade's gauge. So, since the teeth are not set, they generally will produce smoother cuts than comparable all-steel blades that must have set teeth in order to function efficiently.
What Is Tungsten Carbide?
If you use the words cemented carbide to describe the tooth material on a carbide-tipped saw blade, you will be technically correct. Tungsten carbide is man-made, an alloy of powdered tungsten and carbon permanently bonded by vacuum sintering, a combination of high temperature and extreme pressure. The final product can contain as much as 94 percent tungsten carbide, with the balance composed of a binder such as cobalt powder.
In order to understand what a carbide-tipped saw blade is and what it can do, you must know that there are many grades of cemented carbides used in the saw-blade industry. The most common of these are designated as C1,C2, C3, and C4. The difference between the grades has to do with resistance to shock and wear. C4 has the lowest shock resistance, but the highest wear resistance. C1 is low on wear resistance, but high on shock resistance. A C2 grade, which is about medium in both areas, is often used on special ripping saws that have a flat-top grind and extreme hook, and on blades with a triple-chip grind and minimum hook that are designed for sawing nonferrous metals. C4 seems to be the proper choice for general-purpose and crosscut blades.
Not all carbide-tipped saw blades are manufactured to optimum specifications. Some important aspects to examine before you buy follow:
The size of the carbide tips, since the larger the tips, the more times it can be sharpened before the tips must be replaced.
The braze connection between the car-bide and the blade. If pit marks, tiny holes, are evident, then the blade has not been manufactured to high standards.
The way the tooth is mounted. As shown in Fig. 4-26, it should be seated in its own niche, rather than simply abutted against an edge.
You can expect much from a single carbide-tipped saw blade, but not everything. The characteristics of wood and other materials and the various methods of sawing affect the design of the super blades, just as they do all-steel blades. There is a clear difference, for example, between teeth that are shaped specifically for ripping and those that do an optimum job when crosscutting. You will find differences even among the blades designated as "all-purpose" and those listed as "combination" types. Examples of carbide-tipped saw blades are displayed in Figs. 4-27 through 4-31. An important point to remember is that, while tungsten carbide is a very tough material —second only to diamonds in hardness—it is also very brittle. Any carbide-tipped saw blade should be handled, and used, with tender, loving care.
Sources:[Anonymous] "Your Quick Reference to Carbide-Tipped Circular Saw Blades", Wood no 20 December 1987, pages 60-62. Dated, maybe, but still a useful intro, especially given its large colored diagrams. [Anonymous] "One Arizona Family's Daily Grind: High-Tech Saw-Blade Manufacturing", Wood no 22(April 1988), pages 60-63, and 80.
Carcase:Sometimes Carcase Work or Carcase Construction or Case Construction. In this entry, Carcase is treated together with Casework, because, in writing about woodworking activities where these terms are relevant, often the terms are used interchangeably. Because their meanings are easily confused, precisely defining each term requires explaining how they function in woodworking contexts. In context, while both terms refer to an object under construction, Casework refers to the process, Carcase to the product.[dear reader: I am experimenting in this entry. I would appreciate your thoughts. Is this entry "just over the top", i.e., too extensive, and therefore not entirely useful? Or, does it inform you of something you did not know and are grateful for the info? my email is rgmc36@comcast.net]
Philip Leon, professor emeritus of English at The Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina, helps us sort out the etymology of "carcase":
To make a strong highboy, begin by making a carcass. You can spell this word carcass or carcase. Both spellings are common today and are pronounced the same, "CAR-cuss." As far back as the 13th century, carcass has meant "a dead body." Nowadays the word is a term of derision: "Get your lazy carcass out of that recliner!" Because carcass means a corpse or skeleton, woodworkers appropriated the term to describe the framework, or skeleton, of a piece of furniture.
To define these two terms within the context of furniture design and construction: carcase refers to the basic ''box'', i.e., product, consisting of, say, six sides, as in the six-board chest, i.e., a front, a back, two ends, a bottom, and a top or lid. One of the simplest forms of furniture construction, when joined together, the six boards form an enclosed storage area. Likewise, in furniture design and construction, casework refers to the processes in which woodworkers engage in while constructing the basic "box".To the Englishman, Ernest Joyce, in his 1976 Encyclopedia of Furniture Making, in constructing larger furniture pieces, i.e., "carcase constructions", because
...any large carcase must provide for possible distortion, or 'ricking', ... either under the weight of its own members, or by applied forces, pushing, pulling, lifting, upending, and so forth, or by setting on an uneven foundation, such as a sloping floor.
For the American Industrial Arts instructor, Franklin H Gottshall, and prolific writer:
Many other kinds of carcase construction have evolved from the basic box-type represented by the six-board chest.(American Woodworker, September, 1985, p. 40).
To illustrate the different meanings of carcase (product) and casework (process), take these examples, first from William F. Vroom, in a 1903 issue of Manual Training Magazine,
"Casework" [process] is a term used to denote such articles of furniture as chests of drawers, bookcases, cabinets, sideboards, wardrobes, etc. In general, these have level surfaces and straight lines, though many examples may be seen, both ancient and modern, in which curves predominate. The joints used in their construction include a considerable variety, such as the mortise-and-tenon, the dovetail, the tongue-and-groove, lapped, and housed joints....An alternative method is to form the end of the case of a solid piece, or a paneled frame which may be treated as a solid piece, the carcass [product] being completed by inserting cross-rails with any suitable fastening. The difference between the two methods will readily be seen by reference to the plans, a and b, Fig. i.
The first is undoubtedly sound in principle, and may be adapted to almost any piece of casework [process] by a designer of intelligence and originality. It is not, however, the method most in favor among cabinet-makers, though it is used nowadays in a more or less modified form in furniture factories in the construction of bedroom furniture, sideboards, etc. The second method is obviously the one best adapted to bookcases, small cabinets, etc., in which the depth is inconsiderable; but it is also the one which has become crystallized by usage among good workmen for generations, in framing chests of drawers, secretaries, and general casework [process] of average size and simple design.
William F Vroom, Constructive Design in Woodwork III Manual Training Magazine 4 (january 1903) [image in this article worthy of reproducing here]
Second, from R Davis Benn's 1904 Style in Furniture, where Benn is discussing the achievements of the 18th century furniture designer and maker, Thomas Chippendale:
...Generally speaking, the armoire, livery-cupboard or hutch was built by a country carpenter and then pierced with a crude imitation of geometrical detail or of a local church window. The carcase [product] is bold, as we would have it; the piece is rare, and it touches the collector's heart.....Chippendale's "clothes-presses" rested on deep feet or short legs.... The carcase [product] would be sometimes square, at other times bombe in form, but it seldom displays the amount of garnishment we should expect to find on it after a perusal of Chippendale's book of designs....
Casework [process], whether we consider its simpler forms or the more elaborate shaping and decoration, reached perfection; while mouldings and decoration, colour schemes, and general finish led to the creation of models of the most decorative value.
In a more up-to-date source, Christian Becksvoort, the writer of "Building a Chest of Drawers", Fine Woodworking's 1991 Traditional Furniture Projects uses both terms in one sentence on two occasions on page 13:
In casework as in any furniture, the basic construction of the carcase affects both the look and the function of the piece.
All of the Shaker casework and virtually all of the 19th-century furniture I've worked with, is constructed in one of two ways, with solid wood carcase sides or by solid wood panels let into the frames.
Sources: R. Davis Benn, Style in Furniture (New York: Longmans, Green, 1904; page 17; Franklin H Gottshall, " Carcase Construction," American Woodworker , September, 1985, p. 40; Christian Becksvoort,"Building a Chest of Drawers", Fine Woodworking 's Traditional Furniture Projects , 13.)
Carpenter's Pencil:
Cast Iron:
Castellated Nut: A nut with a series of notches on one face to allow a Cotter Pin to pass through a hole in a shaft or a bolt. The pin prevents the nut from turning. ( Home Craftsman 4 November-December 1935 p. 94)
> Caul , Clamping Caul: Board clamped across a panel glue up to hold the panel flat.Caul Veneering:
Chamfer: click here for extended entry
Although commercial plywood is habitually glued under pressures up to 200 lbs. per sq. in., the home craftsman can turn out a thoroughly satisfactory panel or veneer job if he allows one hand clamp for each 40 sq. in. of surface. If press screws are used, the area can be doubled because of the extra pressure exerted. By using bench screws instead of the rotary handled press screws, a veneer press can be easily built up from a series of simple frames like the one illustrated in Figure 6.15. To resist a pressure of about 4500 lb, the two crossbars for an r8-in. span with two screws should be of hardwood not less than 3 in. by 3/ in.; for a three-screw span of 30 in., the dimensions of the cross-bars should be increased to 3/ in. by 4 3/4 in.
Improvised Presses.
For small work a satisfactory veneer press can be improvised by placing the work on a flat board on the floor, directly under a floor beam. Using a 4 X 4 or two 2 X 4's as a bearer, an automobile jack under a long a X 4 reaching to the floor beam will exert the necessary center pressure. C clamps can be used to hold down the edges, and folded newspapers under the plank "bearer" will compensate for uneveness in the floor.
In an emergency, sand bags will give satisfactory results on small jobs, or piles of bricks, or a washboiler filled with water.
In using a veneer press or any sort of pressure screws or clamps, the veneer is laid on a flat "caul" or board and covered with another caul. Cauls of /-in, plywood are now finding favor in many home workshops. The lower caul rests on solid stock bearers, or the lower crossbars of the veneer press. Directly above the bottom bearers are the bearers upon which the pressure is exerted. As indicated in Figure 6.16, these top bearers are crowned or slightly arched in the center, so that pressure will be exerted upon the center of the glued area first, forcing the glue out toward the edges. For the same reason the pressure screws, bench clamps, hand clamps, or C-clamps controlling the center bearer are screwed down first. It is wise to insert a folded newspaper between the veneer and its caul, to take up the squeezed-out glue
Source: B W Pelton Furniture Making and Cabinet Work NY Van Nostrand 1949, pages 364-366:
Chamfer plane: A plane with an inverted "V" shaped bottom with the cutter at the point of the "V". Used for Beveling an Edge uniformly. Great differences exist in models of chamfer planes. Paul Hasluck (1903:48-49) shows three: Preston's plane; Melhuish's plane, and Nurse's plane. [need photos rather than Hasluck's drawings]
(Paul Noonan Hasluck, The Handyman's Book , London: Cassell, 1903, 48-49; Home Craftsman 4 march April 1935, page 172.
Chasing: Ornamenting metal by ,the use of special tools known as chasing tools. A chasing tool is held against the metal and tapped with a hammer.Source: Home Craftsman 4 May-June 1935, page 220.
Chip-Out: See < Tear-Out.
Chisel: [definitely incomplete] In "Chisels and other paring tools", Paul Hasluck (1903: 35-59) combines diagrams, illustrations and descriptive text showing amateur woodworkers many aspects about these venerable woodworking tools. [see file in glossary folder] Butt chisel. A chisel about 7" to 9" in length. Used for cutting recesses for hinges, locks and so forth, where accuracy of cutting is essential. home craftsman 4 may june 1935 p 220
Firmer chisel. For rough work, a chisel designed to stand up to being beaten by a hammer or mallet.
Skew chisel. A chisel with a straight-cutting edge running at an angle to the handle and beveled on its two flat sides.
Source: Home Craftsman 4 May-June 1935 page 220.
The make selected should be the FIRMER-CHISEL, the form of which is shown in Fig. 5. These are made in sixteen graduated widths, from 1/8 inch to 2 inches, but the following eight sizes will be sufficient for all ordinary purposes, 1/8, 1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/2, and 2 inches. The amateur, in the earlier stages of his operations, will probably find several of these sizes unnecessary; but as such chisels are not expensive articles, he may fairly aim at possessing the suggested selection if not the complete set. He will, of course, purchase the chisels handled and ready for final sharpening”.
Source: George Ashdown Audsley, Amateur Joinery in the Home: a Practical Manual for the Amateur Joiner on the Construction of Articles of Domestic Furniture Boston: Small, Maynard & Co, 1916 page 42.
A chisel about a foot long capable of withstanding the driving blows of a mallet or hammer. It often is capped with leather.
Source: Home Craftsman 4 May-June 1935 page 220.
“My [chisel] for [rough work] is less delicate, a beater firmer chisel with a polycarbonate handle and a 4-inch blade, of a type that is sometimes called a Pocket Chisel, which refers to its length (6 to 8 inches) and to where it lives: it lives in a pocket of my toolpouch, and serves for most rough work. It was designed to be struck—brace yourself—with a hammer, although that's carrying heavy-duty a bit far. Remodelers often keep one of these expendables for general use, or else a sturdy mortise chisel (larger, wood-handled, with an overall length upwards of a foot.) The blades are often quite short from repeated grinding after hitting nails” Source: Jeff Taylor, Tools of the Trade: The Art and Craft of Carpentry (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1996) page 133. Sources: George Ashdown Audsley, Amateur Joinery in the Home: a Practical Manual for the Amateur Joiner on the Construction of Articles of Domestic Furniture Boston: Small, Maynard & Co, 1916 ; Home Craftsman 4 May-June 1935 p 220; Jeff Taylor, Tools of the Trade: The Art and Craft of Carpentry (San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1996) p 133.
"Chop Saw": A derogatory term for an inexpensive saw with a universal motor. [also called Electric miter saw, cut-off saw or power miter box) [cutting capacity?] Primarily used for making cross cuts and miter cuts. The basic model has its circular blade fixed at a 90° angle to the vertical, a compound miter saw's blade can be adjusted to other angles. A sliding compound miter saw has a blade which can be pulled through the work similar to the action of a radial arm saw, which gives a greater capacity for cutting wider workpieces.
Source: http://www.answers.com/topic/saw
JOHN WARDE, "HOME IMPROVEMENT," New York Times June 27, 1991: "For mitering -- cutting the ends of the molding at a 45-degree angle -- use a miter box and back saw, or rent a power miter saw, also called a chop saw."
Steven Maxwell "Workshop" Toronto Star Apr 8, 2000. pg. 1: "If I were recommending a general-purpose chop saw to a friend, I'd make the case for a sliding compound machine spinning a 10-inch blade."
Jim Fredrick, " Lifestyles," Anchorage Daily News. Anchorage, Alaska: Aug 29, 1997. pg. D.6 "The old chop saw, or miter saw, with a 10-inch blade that did little more than move up and down, and was movable from side to side for vertical miter cuts, is now made with a 12-inch blade to handle thicker stock. But more importantly, it can be angled to make compound miters. The blade/motor is mounted on a slide rail to allow cutting wider stock -- a hybrid of the chop saw with the old slide-rail cutoff saw -- with a corresponding increase in flexibility and portability."
Jack Warner, "WOODWORKING: Buying proper tools important," The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Atlanta, Ga.: Sep 27, 1998. pg. JJ.07: "If all he was interested in was carpentry, then he might get by with a portable circular saw or a chop saw."
This entry needs much editing and more info:
Chuck:
The assembly of a Drill or Lathe where, during rotation, the Bit or material is held. A Chuck has movable jaws, for gripping Bit. A Collet is a split-sleeve type of chuck -- but no movable jaws-- for holding drills and other such tools. Similar to a Drill's Chuck or Shaper's Spindle, an assembly on a Router where the Bit is inserted and gripped tightly. Uses a compressio sleeve, or split-sleeve, to grip the Bit's Shank. The greater number of splits, also known as slits, the more efficiently the collet grips the Shank of a router's bit. See [Anonymous], "Router Collets", Woodworking Magazine, Autumn, 2006, back cover, for info on a how a collet works, types of collets, and maintenance.
On the left, the anatomy of a Jacobs drill-chuck. (A) Body. (B) Jaws. (C) Split threaded ring, force fit into (D) Adjusting sleeve. (Courtesy Jacobs Mfg. Co. Ltd.)
>On the left, the anatomy of an Albrecht keyless chuck. "The design enables even large drills to be gripped firmly when hand-tightened".
Source: Tubal Cain. Drill, Taps and Dies. Birmingham, England: Argus Books, 1976, page 38. Image courtesy Jacobs Mfg. Co. Ltd.)
Ordinarily, a Collet chuck is made to hold only one size of tool shank without the addition of an adapter. Source: Home Craftsman 4 March-April 1935, page 172.<
Sources: Home Craftsman 4 March-April 1935; Tubal Cain. Drill, Taps and Dies. Birmingham, England: Argus Books, 1976.
It is no use having a perfectly formed drill point if the drill itself is not held both firmly and true.
Source: Tubal Cain. Drill, Taps and Dies. Birmingham, England: Argus Books, 1976, page 38.
By way of annotation on this book, I must say that it is one of the best books that I have ever purchased on an impulse at a used book store. It is 30 years old, is written in England -- which does not mean it''s "bad", simply that frequently books written in another country do not necessarily speak to your needs, because the products discussed are different, etc.
Circular Saw click here for extended entryCircular Saw Blade : central component of a circular saw.
Clamps:
It's often said that "you can't have enough clamps". Clamps are used mostly for hold workpieces together firmly and accurately while glue sets up, but often serve simply as a "third hand", for stabilizing plywood panels while a cut is made with a portable power saw.
Bar clamps -- essential in the home shop, if you have larger projects that require gluing, especially table tops, or pieces that require edge-to-edge gluing. Bar clamps come in several different styles: Among older styles are A through F in the image on the left. Those marked B, C, and D are the heftiest, especially B. A is a special-purpose clamp, while E and F -- if purchased new -- are assembled in your shop after the woodwn structural parts are purchased.
C-Clamps: Also essential in the home shop, C-clamps are designed to hold smaller, narrow workpieces, such as table legs, while glue sets.
Named after its physical shape, the C clamp consists of fixed flat jaw and one movable jaw. The movable jaw has a flat “anvil” that pivots on a ball-joint swivel, allowing the clamp to adjust to securely holding some surfaces that are parallel or are nearly parallel. A threaded screw -- with a sliding pin handle -- adjusts the opening of the clamp.
When you purchase C clamps, two dimensions are important: the opening of the jaws, which can varies from 1 up to about 18 inches, and the depth of the clamp, which varies. The depth -- referred to as the throat – extends from the center of the screw to the clamp’s“C” part. So-called “deep-throated C clamps” have throats extending up to 16 inches. The “depth dimension” of the throat determines how distant from the edge the workpiece can be clamped.
Hand-Screw Clamps: In function, similar in many respects to C-clamps, although achieving the same degree of pressure is not possible. The distinct of handscrew clamps is an ability to adjust to unique angles.
Cleat: 3. a A strip of wood, iron or other material fastened across something to give strength, hold in position, furnish a grip, etc.; as, a porcelain cleat with grooves in which electric wires are fastened; a strip of leather fastened to the sole of a shoe to give a firm grip. b Specif.,Joinery, a frame of wood or iron used instead of cramps for compressing joints, etc.; also, a chock or bearing block.
My Websters New Dictionary, 2d ed, 1952, gives at least three meanings for "cleat", only one of which (posted above) relates to cleat in woodworking. For an "insider" to woodworking, visualizing a cleat, and how it functions, is easy; describing it for "outsiders", though, is not so easy.
... The seat may be made in two ways; cross pieces of wood may be used or a softer seat with webbing and wire springs. If the former is chosen the cross pieces should be 24" long, 3 1/2" wide and 5/8" thick. Mortises of full size to receive the ends are cut on the inside of the side pieces 2" from the lower edge and placed as shown in Fig. 1. If springs are used four strips of 3" webbing are run both across and front and back, the ends being securely held by cleats 1" square which are screwed to the inside lower edge of the cross pieces. Short spiral wire springs are then sewed where the webbing crosses, 16 being required. The tops of the springs are then secured by ad¬ditional strips of webbing or by a piece of strong canvas, the latter preferred. Allowance must be made for the depression of the springs and canvas caused by the weight of the person occupying the chair.
Source: JOHN F. ADAMS.,"A Reclining Chair", Amateur Work May 1902 page?
Clinch Nails:
Cockbeading: Philip Leon, "Woodworker Meets Wordworker," Popular Woodworking (April 2002), p. ? ["Out of the Woodwork" column.]
Collet : See also Chuck.
On the left is the image of the collet system in my early 1990s Elu router.
(Source: [Anonymous] "Elu Router", Shopnotes 1, no 1 1992, page 10 Image used with permission.)(The significance of routers in the amateur woodworking movement warrants an extended treatment of the router's development. Click here for an account that traces back to the first decade of the 20th century up to the recent past
Colonial Furniture Making for Everybody , page v, much confusion exists about the meaning of "Colonial".
Colonial Revival: [here] A period in American history, this term also designates a furniture style. As the noted writer of woodworking manuals, John Gerald Shea says in the Preface to the 1964 edition of
PREFACE
"Colonial furniture" is in itself a misnomer. For there are at least three separate categories of colonial furniture, and two of these have little in common.
First, there is the rudimentary, solid-wood furniture which the original settlers produced in this country during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Second, there are the ornate and sophisticated mahogany designs developed here during the post-settlement era of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These two types of "colonial" have about as much affinity to each other as a primitive peg-leg stool has to a polished Chippendale chair. Yet, they are grouped together, willy-nilly, in books and catalogs and both are called "colonial furniture."
In this book we are dealing primarily with the first category. (Some try to separate this by calling it "early American." But this, too, is a misnomer. Because in common usage, "early American" also embraces furniture of the post-settlement periods.) So, to establish some distinction, text reference is modified to read "early colonial." This signifies that the basic furniture designs shown here were first made by the American settlers during the early colonial period. There is, however, a third category of colonial furniture presented in this book. We call this "contemporary colonial." It includes the attractive new designs and adaptations which are based on, and inspired by, the 'early colonial style. Colonial furniture as it is produced and popularized in America today is largely of this third category.
Sometimes there is only a remote relationship between these new designs of "contemporary colonial" and the antiques which inspired their development. Nevertheless, the honest appeal of solid-wood construction and details of fine craftsmanship still prevail. The beautiful old scrolls and authentic shapes of wood turning also have been retained to distinguish today's colonial. Most modifications of the original designs have been made with -reason and good taste. For as much as we may love this traditional furniture style as it was originally made, antiques do not meet all the needs of our homes of today.
Colonial Revival: A restoration of interest in the material culture of America's foundation era. (I am not going to engage myself in battles associated with America's "culture wars". Instead, delicately, I will try to tread carefully through the minefields and merely try try describe and explain the "who, when, where, how, and why".) T he Winterthur Museum website claims that the Colonial Revival began in the mid-19th century:
… thousands of Europeans were immigrating to the United States. Between 1800 and 1930 the foreign-born population of the United States more than doubled; the immigrants brought their own speech, culture, and politics. Americans whose ancestors had arrived earlier were often fearful that their traditions would be swept away by the flood of foreign ideas and practices (Taylor 14)
source: Ideological Origins of Williamsburg http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG99/hall/AMSTUD.html
[there is more in word file]
from opd William B. Rhoads "The Colonial Revival and the Americanization of Immigrants," in The Colonial Revival in America, ed by Alan Axelrod; W. W. Norton, 1985:
Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 , pt. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 117; Edward George Hartmann, The Movement to Americanize the Immigrant (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948); John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860—1925 (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1969), pp. 234—63; William B. Rhoads, The Colonial Revival (New York: Garland Publishing, 1977), chap. 28...; Jonathon Prown and Katherine Hemple Prown, "The Quiet Canon: Tradition and Exclusion in American Furniture Scholarship", American Furniture 2002, pages 207-227
Between 1880 and 1930 the foreign-born population of the United States more than doubled from 6.7 to 14.2 million, the immigrants bringing their own speech, culture, and politics. Americans whose ancestors had arrived earlier were often fearful that their traditions would be swept away by the flood of foreign ideas and practices. From the 1890s until strict limitations were imposed on further immigration in 1924, many native-born Americans reacted to the threatened destruction of the American way of life by actively engaging in Americanization, the instilling of traditional WASP "American" values in the minds of the foreign-born.
Most often Americanization simply took the form of English-language classes and instruction in American government and history. The great events of the nation's past might, it was felt, also be made more vivid if portrayed in murals within public buildings. Edwin Howland Blashfield, one of the best-known muralists of the early 1900s, testified that art in public buildings was "good ... for the uneducated Irishman, German, Swede, Italian, who may stroll into some new city hall in our … ?
More development needed, with these sources:
Williams, A.D. Spanish Colonial Furniture. Gibbs Smith, 1944.
Katz, Sali Barnett. Hispanic furniture: an American collection from the Southwest. Stamford, Conn.: Architectural Book Pub. Co., 1986.
Taylor, Lonn, New Mexican furniture, 1600-1940 : the origins, survival, and revival of furniture making in the Hispanic Southwest. Lonn Taylor, Dessa Bokides ; photographs by Mary Peck, additional photography by Jim Bones. Santa Fe, N.M.: Museum of New Mexico Press, 1987.
Kingsley H. Hammett. Early New Mexican Furniture: A Handbook of Plans and Building Techniques. Santa Fe, NM: Fleetwood, 1999. 96 pages.
Colonial Style: [much more needed here] Colonial furniture, designed in a style reminiscent of primitive English Tudor furniture, is very straight lined, with simple curves and angles. Because its simple lines present less difficulty to "newbie" woodworkers -- in this sense very similar to Shaker and Arts and Crafts (Mission) furniture design -- the Colonial style remains popular for woodworking projects.
Combination Square:
Originally a tool of engineers and architects, the adjustable square is sometimes called the "Stanley combination Try -Square and Depth-Gauge, incorporating a sliding rule".Sometimes called an Adjustable Square. In the woodshop, virtually indispensable, first as a measuring tool, but -- as its label suggests -- performs several other functions: Try-Square, Marking Square, Ruler, Miter Square , depth gauge, height gauge, and plumb. (Some Combination Squares include tiny Spirit Levels and Scribes or tiny Awls.)
The high-end manufacturer, Starrett Tools, however, is even more famous for its version of an adjustable square. (See image blow, left; see this bio entry for Laroy S. Starrett after clicking on this link.)
In my personal experience -- I have several of these tools, including the one pictured on the left -- these tools are most frequently called Adjustable Square s, but after considerable investigation, it appears that Combination Square s is the most widely used designation, and -- if we consider Fine Woodworking as an arbiter of proper usage among woodworkers -- the correct label. (I came to the latter conclusion by way of a search for both terms in the FW database. The FW database yields no hits for Adjustable Square , five hits for Combination Square . I do question my results on both terms, because, five uses of Combination Square in all the articles published in FW since its launching, 1976, doesn't seem plausible. The frequency, I think, should be greater. And unless the FW editors are pruning out uses of Adjustable Square , one would think it would have been used in 30 years of articles.)
Using one of the two Making of America databases -- and the search string, combination square, I located the United States Patent Office's Subject-Matter Index Of Patents For Inventions Issued By The United States Patent Office From 1790 To 1873 , inclusive ..., which records that a D A B Bailey, St Johnsbury, Vermont, 1867, and a # 65,681; H N Burr, Mount Gilead, Ohio, 1869, # 94,867, both patented "Combination Squares". (The MOA database above is operated by the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor.)
Just to make sure that the Combination Squares patented in the 1860s are the same as the Combination Squares we know of today, I also searched for the term in the second Making of America -- the one at Cornell University -- I located more hits, including illustrations here:Source: "Improved Tools for Wood-Workers," Manufacturer and Builder Volume 19, Issue 1 January 1887, page 6. The publisher of that journal is Western and Company, New York.) The Scientific American New Series, Volume 21, Issue 14 (October 1869) page 222, confirms the Burr patent, mentioned above.
The earliest use to the term, Adjustable Square is, evidently, 1863, but -- since it's not accompanied by an image -- we can't be certain that the reference is indeed to an adjustable square as we know that tool today: Search: "adjustable square" yields two hits, one this match of 'adjustable square': Scientific American New Series, Volume 9, Issue 2, page 28. (In the second hit, I couldn't locate the evidence.)"Firmly held in this position, the adjustable square centre is simultaneously brought up against one end of the stay, and as the other is encountering the ... ."
This 1868 quote from this Google Book Search shows that the Adjustable Square is a tool first used by machinists:
Source: Andrew Betts Brown, Engineering Facts And Figures: An Annual Register Of Progress In Mechanical Engineering And... , 1868, page 226.
In operation, its blade can be locked at any point along its length. (The blade is held in the "stock", or "sliding head", by an assembly that combines a "hook clamp" that slides in the groove along the length of the blade, and -- anywhere along the blade --can be tightened with a bolt with a nut.)Sources: Scientific American New Series, Volume 9, Issue 2; Andrew Betts Brown, Engineering Facts And Figures: An Annual Register Of Progress In Mechanical Engineering And... , 1868; "Improved Tools for Wood-Workers," Manufacturer and Builder Volume 19, Issue 1 January 1887; Charles G. Wheeler, Woodworking: A Handbook for Beginners in Home and School Treating Tools and Operations . NY: Putnam's Sons, 1924. page 18;International Correspondence Schools, Shop and Foundry Practice , 1901; Jeff Taylor, Tools of the Trade: The Art and Craft of Carpentry , San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1996; Ernest Joyce, Encyclopedia of Furniture Making , NY: Sterling, 1979, page 30.
Combination Tool: By "combination tool" usually means a piece of machinery with a small, space-saving footprint, that includes a table saw with an circular blade and a tilting table, or a tilting arbor, a 30" lathe, a drill press, a disk sander, a shaper, and you can add such accessories as a jig saw, a bandsaw, and an abrasive machine. Often powered from one source, a Fractional Horsepower Electric Induction Motor, or a gasoline engine, and either by Lineshafts and belts, or -- later -- by several motors. European woodworkers, who put a premium on space, provide a good market for combination tools. Here in America, we tend more toward single-function machines, although lathe-based, multipurpose-tool designs (Shopsmith and Total Shop) are still popular in home shops.
Sources: An Etymological Dictionary Of The English Language, by John Oswald, Philadelphia,: E. C. & J. Biddle, Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger, 1868, p. 121. (in the Online database, Making of America) The 1868 date is interesting, because the earliest date for the Oxford English Dictionary records is 1901.
Compressed-Air System:
Constructive Design: See Design
Coped Joints: see the Home craftsman 20 (March April) 1951 pp 45-46
Coplanar: [under construction] Jeff Joslin, an official of the Old Woodworking Machines website (and advisory editor for my online History of the Amateur Woodworking Movement: "Coplanar" means "lying or occurring in the same plane; used for points, lines, or figures." see discussion in the piece on the Evolution of the Tilting Arbor Saw
Cordless Tools: As the term, "cordless" implies, a tool self-contained for power, not needing a cord that connects to an electrical outlet. In 1961, at the behest of NASA, an engineer for Black and Decker, Robert H. Riley Jr., invented the nickel-cadmium battery. This space-age invention subsequently led to the first cordless drill for Black & Decker; the drill had a 4.8-volt nickel-cadmium battery. Using this technology, Black & Decker later created a cordless rotary hammer drill, used by astronauts to drill for rock samples on the moon. (In this context, most famous perhaps is the photo of astronauts using a cordless hammer drill to obtain rock samples on the moon in ? See the extensive account of Riley at Tools Online "Hall of Fame" [link needed]
The material culture historian, Carolyn M. Goldstein, claims (without any documentation) that, "Cordless drills, although expensive and underpowered at first, were introduced in the early 1960s."
Other portable power tool manufacturers followed with their own battery-powered tools. In 1963, Milwaukee marketed a (corded) battery-powered drill -- the battery clipped to the user's belt -- a technique that gave Milwaukee's tools more power without the extra weight of the battery. Today, cordless models of everything from drills to circular saws, jig saws, and routers are available from a variety of manufacturers with power ranging from 6- to 36-volt. Manufacturers offer their customers "combo kits" that feature a variety of different cordless tools (Photo, below).
Modern tools often have "smart" chargers that reduce heat to maximize power, nun-time, and the useful life of the battery itself.
(Source: Carolyn M. Goldstein, Do-It-Yourself: Home Improvement in 20th Century America New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1998, pages 50-51.)
Cotter Pin:
Countersink: As a noun, the cone-shaped opening at the upper end of a Pilot Hole, made to allow a flathead screw or bolt head to set Flush with the top surface of the piece. As a verb, using a Countersink Punch, drive the head of a Finishing Nail or Brad below the surface of the wood in order to conceal it. James Smith, 1815, page 115: "The head of the countersink is conical."
Source: James Smith,The panorama of science and art; mbracing the sciences of aerostation, agriculture and gardening, architecture, astronomy, chemistry ... the arts of building, brewing, bleaching ... the methods of working in wood and metal ... and a miscellaneous selection of interesting and useful processes and experiments. Liverpool, Printed for Nuttall, Fisher, and Co., 1815.,
(My own curiosity will keep me working on this entry. For the woodworker, the concept of "countersink" is simple, a merely a jig designed to allow you to set the head of a screw flush with the top of a piece. "Sink" I can understand. Why "counter"? Nothing that I have examined, so far, begins to explain the reason for counter in the term, countersink.)
Countersink Bit: Its cutting edge conically-shaped, a Bit designed to cut conical or circular beveled recesses for countersinking Screws.
These images show a selection of countersink bits. (I have an image of a bored countersink hole to be uploaded later.)
The larger image on the right, below -- actually a jpg for a page from a book in the Making of America database, is the result of a quick-and-dirty search for "countersink": Shelley, C. P. B. (Charles Percy Bysshe), 1827-1890, Workshop appliances including descriptions of the gauging and measuring instruments, the hand cutting-tools, lathes, drilling, planning, and other machine-tools used by engineers. New York: Appleton, 1873, page 64.
Cove: A rounded concave cut in a molding, usually placed at the edge F so that the cut is one half of a complete groove or flute. ( Source: Home Craftsman 4 January-February 1935, page 124)
Cross-lap Joint: A wood joint made where two members cross each other. When the two members are of equal size each member is notched to a depth of one-half its thickness. Example: the stretchers on a gateleg table are cut with half-lap joints so that a wing member of the frame-work can fit into the stationary member. (home craftsman 4 November- December 1935 p. 94)
Curved-Leg Table: see also Tripod Table . (see article, Woodsmith , 28, no 168 December 2006 pp 22-26, plus other details on subsequent pages.)
Cutterhead: The metal cylinder, with three or four lateral slots, designed to hold the Knives of Jointers, Planers, and Molders securely while the rotary action of the assembly flattens, smooths or cuts a profiled pattern on a workpiece. Or, because of the recent appearance of Spiral Cutterheads and Indexable Carbide Spiral Cutterheads, that old-style cutterhead is becoming dated. The cylindrical cutterhead was preceded by the "Square" Cutterhead; see the 2d image below.
One would think that, with its two cutting edges, the auger bit would have preceded the rotary cutterhead of the planer and jointer. Such is not true, though, as the rotary cutter head concept preceded the two-edged auger bit by a century. Samuel Bentham (dates), labeled by some the “father of the modern woodworking machine,” is credited with inventing the rotary cutterhead. Impact per Ettema also from Ettema, n. 20 Richards, Treatise, pp. 5-6. also Richards file.
->
