An unbiased account of the evolution of the project method is found in V. T. Thayer's The
Passing of the Recitation (1928). Thayer, a noted educational philosopher,
wrote several important books during the first half of the twentieth century.
He was a contemporary of Kilpatrick. He collaborated with Kilpatrick, Dewey,
Bode, and others to write The Educational Frontier which was edited by Kilpatrick in 1933. In The
Passing of the Recitation Thayer (p. 229) wrote:
Some twenty years ago
R. W. Stimson, at the time a representative of the Massachusetts
Board of Education, devised a plan for revitalizing the teaching of agriculture
in the vocational high schools of Massachusetts .
. . . What Mr. Stimson proposed to
do was to supplement the regular class
work of the school with home projects. Thus in the Smith Agricultural High
School at Northampton a trained teacher was employed for the summer months of
1908 to assist and direct boys in selecting and carrying on appropriate home
tasks, which tasks should involve the concrete application of principles
already learned in the school.- This plan was successful from the start. Consequently, in 1911, the
Massachusetts Legislature agreed to pay two-thirds of the salary of specially
qualified teachers whom a selected list of high schools might employ. In this action Massachusetts
set the standard for a new departure in vocational education
W Wilbur Hatfield,
"THE CREATIVE IMPULSE", The English Journal, 8, 2 (Feb
1919), pp 139-140
The
Creative Impulse in Industry. By Helen Marot . New York : E. P. Dutton
& Co., 1918. Pp. 146. [ from
google print, on opd ]
A
neglected aspect of living has been brought sharply to the fore by Helen Marot in
her slender volume on the Creative Impulse.1 Her surprisingly simple
thesis-many find it simply surprising, too-runs something like this:
Work is not
educative unless the worker is interested in producing rather than in acquiring
economic goods. Such interest is possible only when the worker shares the
responsibility (1) for choosing the object to be produced,
(2) for planning the production, and
(3) for executing the plan-actual producing.
Adventure,
experiment, finding out for one's self, not blindly following the directions of
another, is the essence of the intellectual life and the best part of freedom.
This sharing of responsibility is denied the mass of
workers by our present system of managing industry for profit. Machines and
scientific management have concentrated all responsibility in the hands of the
management. Two bad results follow:
(1) The life of the
ordinary worker is straitened , whereas it should be
broadened by his work.
(2) The warmth of
interest gone, the worker shrinks back into himself and applies only a small
fraction of his potential energy to the business of production, so that our
total production is much less than it should be. In other words, our present
methods of production tend to make the worker a mere attachment of a machine,
much less valuable both to himself and to his employer than the vivid
personality he might be.
Miss Marot goes on to show that our industrial schools have much
the same effect as the factories. They too often treat the methods of
production as already settled and perfected and
needing only to be learned and minutely followed by the learner. She even hints
that our ordinary high schools have been guilty of this sin of making the eager
youth into a mere cog in our social and economic machine.
The remedy? It scarcely needs statement. Restore to the employee
and to the pupil a share in the planning of the enterprise and in the responsibility
for its conduct. In factory work the restoration will
be difficult, but fortunately we are concerned with that phase of the problem
only as English teachers are vitally concerned with every aspect of social
life. In schools the restoration is hindered only by
our own bondage to tradition. There is no reason why we should not, in
secondary schools and colleges at least, permit our pupils to participate in
choosing the objectives and in planning the procedure, and to bear much of the
responsibility for executing the plan. The project method
again! You knew it all the time? Naturally, for
the project method is the method of real living in school as well as in
industry.W. W. H. |
At bottom, in the era of WW I, what
educational theorists worked out is that school life
should be organized with life in the home and community. In such a context, a
'project' was defined then as "a single complete unit
of purposeful existence." ( james
fleming hosic , "An Outline
of the project method," the english journal, 7, 9,
(Nov 1918), pp 599-603.
jpg from p 65 of this piece, ed by William Kilpatrick
http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Syllabus_in_the_Philosophy_of_Education.pdf?vid=OCLC02102901&id=Fxwp7DMzPbkC&output=pdf&sig=qXlOdtvtmmVZgQMCwgob9kxUWGQ
Earlier, in 1918,
Kilpatrick laid out the theoretical outlines of the project method: THE PROJECT
METHOD: The Use of the Purposeful Act in the Educative Process, by William
Heard Kilpatrick, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia
University, [shaded area below from an explanation of how "the project method
was plagiarized", by gary e moore's
paper on Rufus W Stimson.
William Heard Kilpatrick, a noted professor at Columbia University ,
published an article in the September 1918 issue of the ' Teachers College
Record titled "The Project
Method." The article went into considerable detail discussing the
merit, basic assumptions, and value of the project method. The article was well written and pedagogically sound . Kilpatrick
made a statement (p. 320) in the article, which many people may have ignored;
he said, "I did not invent the term
[the project method] nor did I start it on its educational career. Indeed, I do
not know how long it has already been in use." Later in his book
Foundations of Methods (1925) Kilpatrick wrote,. . ..
the merits of purposeful activity [referring to the project method] depend on
how well it will work if given a fair chance and not at all on the name
assigned to it and still less on who first used the name."
Kilpatrick's books, articles and presentations about the
effectiveness of the project method received national attention and acclaim.
His works have been cited many times. An entire issue
of Educational Theory was published in 1966 in
honor of Kilpatrick. In this issue, several distinguished authors told how the
project method of teaching was used around the world.
They espoused the project method as one of the greatest events to have occurred
in education. It revolutionized
education. .
Writing in 1920, in Industrial Arts Magazine, Fred C.
Whitcomb, a professor of industrial education, < Miami University
at Oxford , Ohio , claimed that,
In the new name, "Industrial Arts", which
is gradually replacing that of "manual training" the newer ideas are
embodied. As Dean Russell says [ 1 Russell
"The School and Industrial Life"- Educational Review December. 1909.]
this third element (industrial education) is needed in
our school curriculum (the other two being the humanistic and scientific). He
says: "If the humanistic studies
are essential in the training of the child in his social relations, and the
scientific in his relation to the physical world in which he lives, it is
equally important that economic studies be included in the curriculum to
pro-vide instruction in the industries from which man gains `leis material
possessions. I mean the study of industries for the sake of a better
perspective on man's achievements in controlling the production, distribution,
and consumption of the things which constitute his material wealth.".
.The opportunity to make
projects which are thought provoking and which satisfy real needs of the boy
are of vastly more educational value than the formal manual training model or
exercise, but we should go a step farther and make what may be called the
general project the unit of instruction in industrial-arts work.
This unit of instruction would not limit the project to one or even
two materials to be used in its construction, but a
variety of materials and appropriate tools would be available. This need not be
more expensive from the standpoint of equipment than the conventional
woodworking shop equipment as only one or two units of equipment of each kind need be provided . The seemingly increased difficulty of teaching under such conditions is counteracted , at least partially, by the increased
interest of the boys . The different kinds of equipment are located in one
large room, or in some instances specific units are
placed in small rooms immediately off the main room. .
. 7.
As the project seems to be the best unit of instruction in industrial-arts
teaching, the inductive development type of lesson plan lends itself best to
the presentation of this unit of instruction. But
there is also a place for the lesson for appreciation and (especially in the
vocational phase of our field of teaching) for the drill lesson.
8. The double column form of lesson plan seems best adapted to the
coordinate arrangement of subject matter, and. method of procedure.
..In considering the above plans attention is called first to the
"teacher's aims". Instead of the conventional aims of skill and
learning how to make certain joints properly and how to use tools correctly, the emphasis is placed
on what seems more fundamental in boy development. In general education , industrial skill is
incidental to industrial intelligence, appreciation, etc. Even in vocational education
thoughtful use of manual skill is receiving increased attention. Boys
naturally like to make things, and the
home seldom provides this opportunity any more. The school must make use of
this tendency in a beneficial manner. The
school should be real living, and life is continually presenting problems to be solved ..
.. In conclusion, I wish to add: As educators
in general are advocating the
thought-provoking problem as the unit of school instruction, does it not behoove the industrial-arts teacher to carefully consider his organization of instructional material to the end that
the project which meets the real needs of the boy be
his unit of instruction? And further , can this
project be made socially worth while if the woodworking field of industry only
is considered? This has been a very general presentation only of what to my
mind seems a very important subject. Details have to be
worked out very carefully.
In 1920, and
after a tortuous journey ( ie , as laid out in the
Manual Training Magazine 22, no 3 (September 1920), pp 57-61), H J Whitney,
Head of the Dept of Vocational Education, at what is now Central Washington
University, in Ellensburg, concludes that
"Project teaching of
manual training is the most difficult kind of teaching, but with all the most
fruitful, for it furnishes the opportunity to develop those qualities of
manhood that our democratic society most needs today, and it enables one to
make most effective use of the laws that govern the development of all human
beings."
Whitney's writing is dense, suggesting that he is not
comfortable expressing views about "project teaching", the implicit message
being that, maybe, using this method, industrial arts teachers are forsaking
too much of their authority, both as mentors and as repositories of learning.
He does, though - as the above quote shows - give
approval to project learning.
Per
Capita Costs of Manual Arts Courses "More Expensive"
In an editorial
comment in Industrial
Education Magazine 29, no 8
(February 1928), p 265-266, William T Bawden , co-editor of IEM and director of vocational education in < Tulsa Oklahoma .
"Summarizing the foregoing sketchy outline, in which I have attempted
to confine myself to conditions affecting practically all high schools
regardless of size, it appears that manual
arts work is necessarily and substantially more expensive than the average of
subject-costs. Superintendents are anxiously scrutinizing per capita costs,
and are becoming more and more impressed by these differences, and are seriously considering possible measures of
relief." [ see opd for
more details]
As editor, issue by issue, Bawden wrote editorials, generally with a focus on the
economics of manual arts programs - see opd file
under iem
Could
"possible measures of relief" include encouraging home shops? That same issue
of Industrial
Education Magazine had a brief
review of Chelsea Fraser's The Boy's Busy Book [link later to manuals_1921-1930]
The Boy's Busy Book. By Chelsea Fraser. Thomas
Y. Crowell Company, < New York City .
1927. Size, 8 x 57/8 inches; cloth, 471 pages.
A book which has been conceived with the idea of helping the boy with
a home workshop to develop a tool knowledge and a resourcefulness which will be
quite an aid to him in his shop-work in school, and will stimulate within him
the creative instinct.
The book begins with suggestions for establishing a simple workshop
and a description of various items of equipment, some of which can be made by the boy. This is followed
by instruction in the care and use of tools and the making and repairing of
many and various objects, taking in such mediums as wood, paper, metal,
leather, concrete, etc.
Mr. Fraser is a teacher, writer and patentee of seven inventions.
I
am gathering other evidence: Charles G Wheeler, Woodworking A Handbook for
Beginners in Home and School Treating of Tools and Operations, NY: G P
Putnam's sons, 1924; Also two vols by Paul Woolley
(Need to check activities by Dumwoody Institute and
Index to Handicrafts.)
Where
does this go? This is a very significant
article
1908: Document 2: A L Hall Workshop at Home 1908
http://home.comcast.net/~rgmc36/hall_workshop_at_home_1908.html
1914: Kelland , C. B. American boy's workshop. Philadelphia :
D. McKay Co. 1914,
< Philadelphia (1914) David McKay An
Octavo, 339 pages, including index. Bound in original
turquoise cloth with pictorial cover and spine in black, white and red. A marvelous Arts and Crafts period book, nicely illustrated,
including a section on Mission furniture.
1920: Jackson, A.
Home
mechanic's workshop companion. N. W. Henley Publishing Co., New
York . 1920.
( jan 1925) pp 197-204 paper filed
in cabinet under Roark - also cited by oaks 1935
1923 : Bonser, Frederick. G. & Mossman, Lucy C. (1928). Industrial arts for elementary schools. New York : Macmillan.
[In many ways, this study is the most
famous in the industrial arts field, from 1900-1925, often cited by later
scholars in technology education as the first period. Overlap occurs, where the
1917 Smith Hughes Act signals the beginning of the second period, which lasts
until 1957. Then, with Sputnik, a third period begins in 1958.
Bonser and Mossman presented concepts
that can only be viewed as oppositional to the
homeworkshop movement. See many of the comments on the impact of this study
in Theodore Lewis and Karen Zuga , document in pdf (all 95 pages) in opd file:]
Industrial
arts is a study of the changes made by man in the forms of materials to
increase their values, and of the problems of life related to these changes
(Frederick Gordon Bonser and Lois Coffey Mossman, 1923, p 5).
This interpretation of the meaning of "industrial arts" was
written seventy years ago by Frederick Gordon Bonser and Lois Coffey Mossman of
Teacher's College at Columbia
University .
This book contained the definition for industrial arts, and was the foundation
for the general-education conception of industrial arts, as well as the general
shop theory later popularized by Warner (Gemmil, 1979;
Kirkwood, et al, 1994 ) . Lux (1981), characterizing this definition as "famous" and "widely accepted," credited
Bonser with leading "a major thrust to redirect industrial arts away from
activities and studies based on discrete materials or selected trade skills and
toward broader conceptualizations such as how humankind provides itself with
clothing, food, and shelter" (p. 211). The definition has three major
elements: education, technology, and society (see Figure 1). Industry is not mentioned .
.
...
in the elementary school, where vocational industrial
education was not as large an issue, Bonser's
philosophy was at times misconstrued. In elementary school industrial arts,
sometime after Bonser's death, "there was a
transition toward an arts and crafts and/or handicrafts approach. It is probable that this approach, as well as the 'method of
teaching' approach, stemmed from an out-of-context application of the Bonser
philosophy" (Hoots, 1974, p. 234). However, Hoots implied that the
difficulty may not have been entirely in
misapplication.
"The manner of presentation utilized by Bonser was somewhat difficult to
follow," he said, "and somewhat difficult to implement" (1974, p. 227).
If Bonser's theories were not clear to educators,
then interpretation was necessary, and, perhaps, misinterpretation was
inevitable...
1923: Wood, N. Boy's Workshop. Funk & Wagnalls Co.,
New York ,
1923.
85,
March, 1936.
1923: R W Selvidge 1923
How to Teach a Trade -- part of the dewey
revolution in education, ie , activity-based education
1924:
Charles G Wheeler. Woodworking: A Handbook for Beginners in Home and School,
Treating of Tools and Operations. Putnam,
1924. 369 p.
A truly remarkable work, especially as a project
conducted by one person.
Obviously part of the "homeworkshop
movement" taking place in the 1920s, Wheeler dedicates this book
"to the Boy Scouts of America, from one of the advisors to the 'National
Court of Honor'." [ look up NCH] Further, in the
sense that the book demonstrates what a single person can achieve, when this project is compared to the two-volume set by Paul Woolley --
two years later, and Chelsea Fraser's The Boy's Busy Book
in 1927 -- we begin to see a body of knowledge accumulating in behalf of the
homeworkshop movement.
( And , starting earlier in the decade, 1921? -- but working in
an almost isolated situation -- the cooperative agreement between Minneapolis
Public Library and the Dunwoody Institute, a technical school, resulted in what
was at first an informal shoe-box-like file of 3 X 5 forming an index of
articles and book chapters on handicrafts relating to the Dunwoody technology
curriculum. Woodworking was a heavy component in the the
index. Created and maintained by librarians in the Reference Department of MPL,
this informal index was published formally in a single
volume as the 1936 Index to Handicrafts. Read more here).
From
Wheeler's PREFACE:
The aim has been to make this working
handbook sufficiently simple, concise, and comprehensive to be suitable for
everyone, from the young beginner to the student or amateur of mature years-for
everybody except those already well trained in the subject, and possibly some
of the latter class may find in it something of value to them. It contains
[over 800 illustrations, including drawings of 762 woodworking hand and machine
tools,] principles and operations which a long and varied experience has shown
to be needed and used repeatedly by beginners, school pupils, and amateurs.
It is hoped that it will answer a large proportion of
the common questions about the more important problems of general woodworking.
1925: Wheeler, Charles G. 1855-1946. (Charles
Gardner). A manual of woodworking: the fundamentals of hand work in wood for
home and school. New York, < London , G.P. Putnam's
sons, 1925. x , 189 pages. illus .
20 cm.
Worldcat Note: Abridged from the author's 1924 Woodworking:
a handbook for beginners.
cf. Preface, " Suggested books for
reading": p. vii.
1925: Roark , M L "Is The Project Method A
Contribution?" Peabody Journal of Education, v 2, no 4
1926: Proffitt , Maris ( Maris Marion), Time
allotment to manual arts work : [Washington, Govt.
Print. Off.,
1926] Pages: 1-10
1926 : Document 11: Paul V. Woolley's "The Importance of
Projects in the Education of Boys" 1926
http://home.comcast.net/~rgmc36/woolley_woodworking_projects_1926.htm
-- should another document
1926: Ericson,
Emanuel B. "The home workshop," Industrial Education Magazine,
28:22-3, July 1926.
1926 : Ewing , E. N.
"How we did it; a home-made workshop," House Beautiful, 591482-4.
April 1926.
1926 : Lecarboura , A. C.
"Corner workshop for apartments," Popular Mechanics, 46:167-8, July
1926.
1927: Mays, Arthur B.
The Problem of Industrial Education New York: Century, 1927. 418 p.
A
commissioned work? In the "editor's introduction", whether this is the
initiative of Mays or of the publisher, The Century Company, is not entirely
clear. (this file is on the disk on the D drive)
Other
similar works needed to account for are C A Bennett's 1937 History of Manual
and Industrial Education (Peoria, IL: Bennett, 1937) and the 1937 book of
chapters edited by bawden, with contributions by Bennett and Mays.
1927: Fraser, Chelsea . The Boy's Busy Book.
1927: Snedden , D. &
Warner, W. E. Reconstruction of industrial arts courses. New York:
Teachers College Columbia ,
1927.
See
below:
1928: Van Horn, D.R. "Workshop for the Home". House and Garden 54:56 1928? 54 :86.
1928.
1928? [really 1923] Bonser
Context and Significance
A Conceptual Framework for Technology Education represents pieces and
parts of many curricular ideas, educational philosophies, and ideologies that
preceded it. Figure 5 is an attempt to contextualize those parts. Any effort of
this kind, and with the experts who were involved, will spring from a diverse
and multigirded philosophical base. Of prominence is the philosophy of social reconstructionism which recognizes
that the human, armed with the knowledge of resources and processes, can
interact with necessary constituents to solve problems. The work of Bonser almost 90 years ago
(Andrews & Erickson, 1976) provided the framework for industrial arts
focusing on technologies of the home. This was in contrast to Selvidge's (1909) work that resulted in the Standards of
Attainment for the Industrial Arts as part of vocational education. Bonser's perspective was
modernized by Snedden and Warner (1927) and then
refocused to reflect the technologies of dominant industries by Warner et al.
(1952) . Warner et al. also supported Wilbur's (1948) definition of
industrial arts, which was paraphrased in Maley's (1973) definition leading to the Maryland Plan. The
Industrial Arts Curriculum Project (IACP; Towers, Lux ,
& Ray, 1966) also has some Warner influence as
does the American Industry Project (Face & Flug ,
1967). Both those
projects influenced the Jackson 's
Mill effort which in turn influenced the Conceptual Framework effort. Some
might say that this interpretation of our curricular efforts has provided
evidence of the incestuous nature of our field. I
find
it difficult to deny that perspective. With the exception of IACP and the
Standards for Technological Literacy
Project (ITEA, 2000) , there have never been
substantive funds to "go outside" of our field for different views of industry
or technology. We are still in our infancy as a discipline and, as such, are
still trying to determine what we want to be when we grow up.
1928: Coakley , F. L. "Handy and compact home workshop,"
Popular Mechanics Monthly, 50:159-60, July
1928.
1928:
Page, Earl Lorain. Values
to Be Derived From the Industrial Arts / by
Earl Lorain Page. Thesis? 1928. LC1081 P142v
1929: Hippaka , T. A.,
"Industrial Arts and Worthy Use of Leisure Time," Phi Delta Kappan , 12:29-30, June,
1929.
1929: Lee, Joseph. Play in education 180-181 NY Macmillan Co.
1929.
1929: Marshall,
D. C. "Tinkering with tinkers; home work shop club," Industrial Arts
Magazine, 18:427,
November, 1929.
THE past few
years have seen a great development of organizations to direct the proper use
of the boy's spare time. . another class of boys that need the attention of
the school and that is those who like to tinker. . prefer to read magazines about mechanical
subjects, . try out the things that
they have read, . work on ideas of
their own origination. . an organization in
the < Manhattan (Kansas ) Junior High School .
. two years
ago (1927) we began .
success .
increased interest in shopwork ,
better class spirit, and
cooperation in the care and upkeep of
shop equipment . appeal
to those students who like to make things because of a natural interest in such
work rather .
We
started this work by inviting all boys who were enrolled in shop classes and
who had a workshop at home , . the purpose of forming
a home workshop club.
. " Woodpecker Club".
Some boys joined for the sake of joining
something rather than because they were interested in a home shop. . the boys drew up the following rules:
1. A
member must have a home shop with at least the following tools: saw; plane;
hammer; bit brace; a few auger bits; a bench ; and a
vise.
2. They
must attend the meetings of the club.
3. They
must stay at least one-half hour and work.
4.
Absence without a good excuse drops a member from
the roll.
5. Members must be voted in by a majority of those in the club .
1929: Schmidt, G. A. "Arranging a home shop,"
Industrial Education Magazine, 30:477-8, June 1929.
this project the boy's home shop . purpose . threefold:
(1) To arrange and equip the shop in such a
way that the boy shall have a fit place in which to work, and good tools to
work with;
(2) To please Dad;
(3) To introduce in a natural way the
various jobs in farm shopwork that
are to be done.
1929: Thatcher,
E. "Practical home made combination workshop," Popular Mechanics,
58:870-3, 1046-8,
November-December
1929.
1929: Halbort , B. "Every boy needs tools," Parents'
Magazine, 4:26, September 1929.
1930: Levitas , Arnold. "The Industrial Arts as an Educational Factor in the Public Schools,"
Journal of Educational Sociology 3, no 7 (March 1930), 423-431.
Stresses
that manual training/industrial arts (p 425) helps overcome mass production's de-emphasis
of "creative work".
1930: Emanuel E Ericson Teaching
Problems In The Industrial Peoria ,
IL : Manual Arts Press, first of 4 editions,
starting in 1930 and ending in 1976?
This
is the first of four editions dedicated to "teaching problems". For our
purposes, i.e., tracing the origin and impact of the homeworkshop movement, Ericson's textbooks give us an "insider's" view of the
progress - or lack of progress, as subsequent editions give less attention
and/or space to both the "project method" and "the homeworkshop movement". Why?
These
two authors, 2005: Lewis Theodore and Zuga , Karen
F "A Conceptual Framework of Ideas and Issues in Technology
Education" 2005 7 No. 1, Fall 1995, a much attention to Bonser, F. G.
& Mossman, L. C. (1928). Industrial arts for elementary
schools. New York :
Macmillan., social reconstrutionism .
Lewis and zuga at least imply that the "project
approach" - their term for project method - morphs into social reconstructionism .
132. The Home Workshop. Shopwork properly taught in the school should encourage the
boy to establish a workshop at home if he does not already have one. The home
workshop among boys is not so common as it should be.
Where such shops exist there is usually no correlation between them and the
school shop or instructor. A few teachers have given splendid service in this
connection by offering suggestions.
[pp 75 to 80+] 49. The Purpose
of the Project. If the purpose for the work is to be conceived
and declared by the students, it will of necessity mean that the instructor
will be put in the position of a guide, an inspiration, in causing the learners
to think in the right direction, rather than the one to announce the purpose
for their thinking.
At this point Friese writes as follows : "It is just as much the duty of the junior high school teacher to
imbue pupils with a worthy purpose as it is to teach subject matter. A
teacher must be expert in both. Purposes must not only be recognized and
accepted by the teacher, but also by the pupils. Unless the latter accept and
appropriate the purposes as their own, this first
important step in the project method will fail." 5
[5 Friese , John F., Exploring the Manual Arts,
Century Company, P. 267.]
By way of illustration, let us assume that a group of boys realize a need for a bicycle-rack on the
school grounds. In reality some one else, probably the instructor, has been
instrumental in making them see the need for it and the possibility of
constructing it. But such influence has been brought to bear from "behind
the scenes" rather than from the center of the stage, and the outlook is
different from what it might have been had the teacher announced that "a
large bicycle .. rack is our
next project." In fact, had he done so, it would not have been an example
of the project method at all. Whatever influence the instructor might have had,
then, the purpose must come from the "inner urge"; it must be
"whole-hearted."
50. The Plan of the Project. Now, instead of the teacher making the statement, "I will
furnish you a drawing for the rack tomorrow," which he might do under the
purely imitative method, he will probably ask the
class what the next step will be. Obviously they
cannot begin to work without a plan. But theirs is the
joy of planning, and one who has not witnessed the zest that
young pupils will put into the planning process has missed some of his rewards
for being a teacher. And who knows, after all,
which is the most important factor to the majority of students, making the
plans, or executing them?
The
planning will not be confined to the sketch or drawing for the article to be
constructed, but will cover also kinds and amounts of material, and orders
through which it may be purchased; as well as a complete analysis of the steps
involved in construction, and perhaps the division of labor necessary; and the
appointing of a foreman. This may
include writing job-sheets, as suggested in Paragraph 46.
132. The
Home Workshop. Shopwork properly taught in the school should encourage the
boy to establish a workshop at home if he does not already have one. The home
workshop among boys is not so common as it should be.
Where such shops exist there is usually no correlation between them and the
school shop or instructor. A few teachers have given splendid service in this
connection by offering suggestions
as to possibilities in arrangement and in giving
advice about tools. See Fig. 10. Many parents desire that their boy have a
workshop because of the possibilities of occupying what would otherwise be idle
time, but too often they know nothing of how to equip
such a shop or how to encourage mechanical work.
If, for instance, shop instructors should spend a
little time in their classes in encouraging this idea, then work out a
bulletin covering needed equipment, and valuable instruction booklets, offering
also their personal service to the boy and the home if need be, there is a
likelihood that the effort would repay in interest developed in both pupils and
parents. It would add a little work and be well worth it. Much of a boy's best
education is received while working in a shed, or in
the back yard, solving the problem of how to repair a toy-automobile or put
together an alarm clock.
133. Credit for Home-Work .
Shall school credit be offered for work done at home? This is another question upon which there is divided comment.
Some teachers have been so brave as to say "Yes," and have attempted
to organize some scheme for checking home-work . One
method used is personal visitation and inspection by the instructor. This is
unquestionably a good plan; and when it can be carried out,
credit should be permissible. Another scheme is to have a paper form for
parents to fill out stating that the work has been done by
the individual , and that it has been completed in a satisfactory manner.
The latter is, of course, less reliable because of the lack of ability of some
parents to tell when a fair mechanical standard has been attained; and, what is
more important, because of the tendency of some parents to be unscrupulous
in the desire to protect their children's grades in school.
There would probably not be enough parents taking
advantage of the situation, however, to jeopardize the procedure of giving
credit for home work where there is a definite set-up for doing it. A
preliminary statement to parents telling of the purposes, and calling for
their cooperation, would help much to establish the plan. Such statements should be so written that they would be brought back with
signatures of parents before the work could begin. Neither boys nor parents
are often outright dishonest if they are made to
understand the standards by which their actions will be judged. Fig. 11 shows a
form that may be used for receiving the inspection record of parents for home work done by students.
In this discussion of this problem
the jobs that might be considered for credit would be carried as auxiliary
work, and not as an independent course in itself. Some home problems could be substituted for some requirements in a general
shop. If the Mechanical Progress-Chart shown in Chapter XI, Fig. 16, is used, jobs done at home would satisfy some of the listed
work.
Perfunctory service on the teacher's part or satisfying
minimum hours will never produce home work-shops . A knowledge of subject matter alone will not inspire
students to home activities. A knowledge of boy
temperament must be added, as well as an interest in what he does with his
leisure time; and, most important of all, the energy and willingness required
to become more to the boy than just his "teacher." The teacher who is
able to do these things, and willing to make the sacrifice that they demand,
need not worry about the enrolment in his shop for the coming semester, nor
will he need to complain that manual arts is losing ground in the schools.
193 ?: Newcomb, R. "Hobby workshop in a
museum," Recreation, 28:224, August 193, .
enrollment of 200 or over# located in the western half of lowa
Unpublished thesis. Library, Iowa State
College Iowa .
1933.
1931: Verrill , A. Hyatt. The Boy's Book of Carpentry.
p. 240-241 Dodd, Mead & Co., New York . 1931
1931: Pennsylvania . Dept. of Public Instruction. Analysis of
book material in the field of industrial education. < Harrisburg , Pa. ,
1931. 15 p. 23
cm. Series: Bulletin (Pennsylvania . Dept. of
Public Instruction) no. 62.
1932: Alderson,
Glenn Allen. Trends
in industrial arts teacher-training curricula for the past ten years ... / by
Glenn Allen Alderson. Publisher:
1932. Call no.: LB1736 AL23t at Iowa
1933: Ericson, E. E., "Industrial Arts and Leisure
Time," Industrial Education Magazine, 35:101, December,
1933.
1933: Everhart, Frank M. A survey of the industrial arts libraries in
junior and senior high schools with an
1933: Lies, Eugene T. "The new leisure challenge of the
schools" pp 3-34. National
Recreation
Association,
NY 1933
1933: Manzer , E. W.,
"Industrial Arts and Leisure," Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education, 22:374-377,
December, 1933.
THE schools, although they have been under
criticism for a quarter of a century, have never before been subjected to a more intelligent scrutiny than they
are today. . speak of the "frills and fads" of modern education, . they
refer to the industrial-arts subjects in most cases.. fail to
recognize the importance of the industrial arts in a mechanical and scientific
age simply because they did not have those important subjects when they went to
school. . vital importance in modern education and as a
basis for the training for leisure-time activity.
1.
First,
through the integration of industrial-arts subjects with the so-called required
subjects;
2.
second,
through the use of industrial subjects as leisure-time activities for the
students;
3.
third , through the leisure-time activities of the adult.
1933: Smith, L. C. "Shop Work as Stimulating
Recreation". Hygeia 11:404-405. 1933
1933 : Document 12: The formation of the National Home
Workshop Guild 1933 http://home.comcast.net/~rgmc36/national_homeworkshop_guild_1933.htm
1934: Lampland , Ruth . Hobbies for Everybody P . ix,
378-383. Harper Bros., 1934
1934: Bennett, C. A., "Leisure and the Creative
Arts," Industrial Education Magazine, 36:92-93, March,
1934.
1934: Chambers, M., "Guidance Through
Hobbies," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 23:178, May,
1934.
1934: Kennan , [Keenan?] Claude Overstreet. now Home Shops of Junior High School Boys
thesis norman
1934: Sibley, H.
"Laying, out a workshop in a limited space," Popular Science, 125:E3 , ,August 1934.
1934: Thurman, L N "Home Workshop for Boys" , IEM 36: 253 1934.
1934:
Bennett, Charles A and Bawden, William T., eds. Industrial arts in
modern education;
published in celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Manual arts
conference of the Mississippi valley. Peoria, Ill., The Manual arts
press, 1934, 168 p. 20 cm.
1935: Greenbie , Marjorie B The Arts of Leisure 231-238. McGraw Hill 1935 .
1935: Collins, Frederick A How to Ride a Hobby < Appleton , 1935
oklahoma 1930 Norma ,
Okla. 1934.
1935: Iowa
State Planning Board. Committee on Population and social trends . The Iowa Community: Its
Progress
With Special Reference To Recreation And Leisure Time Activities June
1935.
1935: Kittle, Dean P. Activities and Equipment Found in
the Home Workshops of 60 Boys Lima Ohio thesis
Iowa < State College , Iowa . 1935
1935 : Maurer, Joel F. " Industirial
Arts and Leisure-time activities" IEM 37: 262-263. 1935
1935: Norse, Workshop Aide in Repairs. Mason
City Globe Gazette, Builders and Owners Page, April
20,
1935.
1935: Oaks, Orville Arthur , "Hobbies: Or, a Woodnut and His Boys," Industrial Education
Magazine,
37:183-188, September, 1935.
This is an important paper. link - also check out the oaks file
THE HOME WORKSHOP
HOBBY
As a teacher and lover
of woodworking, my hobby is the home workshop, with a modest kit of tools for
making things of wood. I encourage home work-shops by
offering to visit the home of any boy and to help him plan a better work-shop
than he now has, or to help him plan a new one. I offer to help select tools
whenever the opportunity offers, but especially at Christmas time. We spend
some time in our recitation periods talking about home workshops, and
planning.
1936 : Cramlet , Ross C.
"Teacher and the Home Workshop" IAVE 24:287 October 1936.
1936 : Cramlet , Ross C. "The
Home workshop" IAVE 24:14a February 1936.
From
k t olson development of a
homeworkshop in des moines
4
In
an article on the home workshop, Ross C . Cramlet
sums up the worthwhile results of the home workshop movement: "It
increases the ability of the individual to use his spare time more profitably.
It
creates an interest in the home which will keep the
members therein. It stimulates a close friendship and a common interest between
father and son in many instances.
It
enables the head of the family to save money in many respects.
.............
it
instills confidence in the individual
which
leads to accomplishment.
It
develops better judgment
as to the value of many commodities used in the home.
.............
It
possesses high recreational value because of its appeal to the natural interest
of the . individuals
involved,"
1936: Hardin , Robert A. "Leisure-Time Aspects and
Value of Woodwork" IEM 38:143-144 1936
1936: Moffitt, F. J., "Industrial Arts Meets the
Challenge," Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 25:81-
1936 : Sylvester, Charles W. Vocational Education's New
Deal IAVE 24: 27. 1936.
1936: Warner, W. E. (1936). How do you interpret industrial arts? Industrial
Arts and Vocational Education, 25(2), 33-36.
1936 : Hall, Sam F. "Leisure time and industrial arts".
IEM 38:84-88. 1936
Haggard
3 -Books GV171
.L3
...
Coalescing Into Industrial Arts
After the turn of the turn of the century, from the nineteenth to the
twentieth, John Dewey became a faculty member at Teachers College Columbia and
had already been a strong advocate for activity-based education in elementary
schools. He advocated including the study of the occupations, which he referred
to as the activities of the kitchen and workshop.
But out of occupation, out of doing things that are to
produce results, and out of doing these in a social cooperative way, there is
born a discipline of its own kind and type. Our whole conception of school
discipline changes when we get this point of view. In critical moments we all realize that the only discipline that stands
by us, the only training that becomes intuition, is that got through life
itself. That we learn from experience, and from books or the sayings of others
only as they are related to experience, are not mere
phrases. But the school has been so set apart, so
isolated from the ordinary conditions and motives of life, that the place where
children are sent for discipline is the one place in the world where it is most
difficult to get experience -the mother of all discipline worth the name
(Dewey, 1900, pp. 30-31).
Dewey's advocacy of the study of the occupations helped to gain widespread
acceptance of the study of manual arts and industrial arts in the schools (Zais , 1976). More important, Dewey advocated the social
study of the occupations from an articulated philosophy of education. He was
also clear that he did not advocate the teaching of skills and trades in
schools for the purposes of training the labor force (Dewey, 1916). His view of
the study of the occupations was to help students to learn from their active
experiences. Eventually, the growing interest in industrial education, the
educational philosophy of Dewey, and the practices of educational sloyd combined to create a school subject called industrial
arts that was designed for all students and implemented in the early grades,
kindergarten through eight grade . Industrial arts was
a term that had been gaining acceptance and use in the literature and was suggested by several prominent industrial educators as
the appropriate term to use. Those who proposed this term thought of it as
handwork for the purpose of being industrious rather than a study of industrial
skills for the purpose of doing a job. They were
searching for a term that would distinguish the field from vocational education
(Bennett, 1937).
9
One of the first texts for teachers about industrial arts was Industrial Arts
for Elementary Schools originally published in 1923 and written by Gordon
Bonser and Lois Mossman (1928), colleagues of Dewey's at Teachers College
Columbia in New York .
They echoed a good deal of Dewey's ideas in the definition they gave to the
study of the industrial arts. The industrial arts are those occupations by
which changes are made in the forms of materials to
increase their values for human usage. As a subject for
educative purposes, industrial arts is a study
of the changes made by man in the forms of materials to increase their values,
and of the problems of life related to these changes (p. 5).
They, as Dewey, eschewed vocational education as a purpose for the industrial
arts. And , in opposition to the manual training of
Woodward, they created a different way of organizing content for teaching the
industrial arts. From their definition of how humans make changes in the forms
of materials, they focused on human needs and selected materials and products
and organized them as the study of foods, clothing, shelter, utensils, records,
tools and machines.
Unfortunately, practice and theory are often unrelated. Frequently, theory does
not inform practice, and, in the case of the study of industrial arts, there
were so many different influences and ideas of what it was
being taught throughout the country that the evolution of the field
throughout the twentieth century became a combination of ideas.
The term of industrial arts became accepted as the
appropriate term for the field and its practice in schools, both elementary and
secondary, and, the definition proposed by Bonser and Mossman became the
standard, but the curriculum retained was the original core curriculum set up
by Woodward for manual training schools: drafting, woodworking, and
metalworking with additional topics such as graphic arts, electricity, automobile
mechanics, and plastics added as they became commonly used in industry and
entered the awareness of the industrial arts community (Schmitt, Harrison,
& Pelley , 1961; Olson, 1963).
Haggard
Rm 233 - Books BJ1498
.N35
1937:
Bennett, C. A. History
of manual and industrial education 1870 to 1917 . Peoria, IL:
Bennett, 1937
1938: Sylvan Austin Yager
Creating an Interest in the Home Workshop IEM 40 January 1938 pp 11-12
1.
It provides a natural extension of the industrial-arts work.
2.
It gives the boys an opportunity to do some work of a type that could not always be performed in the school shop and which
frequently affords an opportunity to use things learned in the industrial-arts
work.
3.
It tends to develop thrift on the part of those establishing home workshops;
for the boys, in many cases, have to earn or save the money with which to buy
tools.
4.
It tends to develop a closer relationship between the school and the home in
the education of the boy.
5.
It frequently proves such an interesting enterprise that the fathers become interested
and the result is a father-and-son team, which makes the shop a co-operative
enterprise between these two.
6. And
most important, it results in keeping the boys at home many hours each week
when they might be on the streets or associating with others of questionable
character. Parents greatly appreciate the home work-shop
for this reason alone.
Sample
letter to parents may be a item for posting on web
1940: Benz,
Leland Arthur.
Advisability of constructing home workshop equipment in industrial
arts classes ... / by Leland Arthur Benz. Thesis
(M.S.)-- Iowa State College, 1940.
1941: Wriedt , Cecil. Trends in industrial arts teacher
education curricula from 1929 to 1939 ... / by Cecil Wriedt . 1941. Call no.: TT168 W93t Iowa Library
Storage Building
1944: Richard Stephen Uhrbrock ,
"The Expressed Interests of Employed Men," American Journal of Psychology,
Vol. 57, No. 3 (Jul., 1944), pp. 317-370
1948 : < Frederick , < Lawrence Mont. Content of articles published in Industrial Arts and Vocational
Education magazine, 1936-1947 ... / by Lawrnece Mont
Frederick.
1962: Hammer, Gerald Keith. (1962). Charles Alpheus
Bennett: Dean of manual arts. Unpublished Doctoral
Dissertation, University Of California , Los
Angeles . Not Available from UMI
1966 : Towers, E. R., Lux , D.
G., & Ray, W. E. (1966).
A
rationale and structure for
industrial arts subject matter . < Columbus , OH:
The Ohio State University .
(" project method" morphs into "social reconstructionism ")
1967: Barlow, M. L. History of industrial education in
the United States . < Peoria , IL: Charles A. Bennett. (1967).
Notes on project approach. - this is at wwu
1983: Bartow, Susan.
Identification and synthesis of the range of
industrial arts philosophy and a comparison of philosophy with actual classroom
practices . Unpublished master's thesis, Miami University,
Oxford, OH., 1983.
1994:
Kirkwood, James J., Foster, Patrick N., and Bartow, Sue M., "Historical Leaders
of Technology Education Philosophy" , Journal
of Industrial Teacher Education 32, no 1 (Fall 1994).
This study -- it replicates Bartow (1983).
Using a jury, Bartow identified the dominant philosophy of
industrial arts. For that study, a jury was chosen for the
purpose of determining leaders in the development of industrial
arts philosophy. The members of the jury for the 1983 study were
industrial arts professionals at the college level who were
actively examining industrial arts curriculum and history and
had published chapters in the ACIATE yearbooks of 1978, 1979, or
1981--yearbooks concerned with curriculum and history. Bartow
sent a questionnaire to the jury asking them to name
professionals in the field who had the greatest impact or
influence on industrial arts philosophy. A list was provided
from which they were directed to identify two individuals from
each of three time periods.
The first time period (1900-1925) spanned the
approximate beginning of industrial arts. Those professionals
who conceived and designed the new program were active
predominantly during those years. Because of some overlap of
people active in the first and second period, the second period
began in 1917 with the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act. The
second period ended and the third began with the 1957 launching
of Sputnik, an event with far-reaching consequences in American
education and, arguably, the beginning of a period of innovative
science and technology curriculum development (Shepard
& Ragan, 1992). The third time period (1957-1982 in
Bartow's 1983 study and 1957-1985 in the
present study) continued from the time of rapid curriculum
change to the point where industrial arts was replaced by
technology education as defined by the national association's
name change from AIAA to
ITEA . The fourth time
period (1985-1993) brought the study to the present.
1995: Foster, Patrick N. "The Founders of
Industrial Arts in the US , "
Journal of Technology Education
7, no 1 (Fall 1995)
In the United States, the historical
roots of industrial arts trace back to early twentieth century, although
some scholars argue that even earlier evidence of the field trace back
much further.
The two educators who had the greatest influence on the genesis of what is
now known as technology education -- but began as IA -- are Lois Coffey
Mossman (1877-1944) and Frederick Gordon Bonser (1875-1931), faculty members
at Teachers College, Columbia University.
"Bonser has not been treated
biographically in nearly a quarter-century; Mossman apparently never has
been. This paper will attempt to provide brief, parallel biographies of
Bonser and Mossman, at once synthesizing published and unpublished
information about them and opening dialogue about conflicting source
information."
Heavily
documented, this paper includes 3-pages of references
1997: Knoll, Michael The
Project Method: Its Vocational Origin And International Development,
Journal
of Technology Education v 34, no 3 spring 1997. - paper filed in cabinet under knoll
Concluding Comments
The development of the term "project," within its broader
conceptual and historical contexts, extends its customary interpretation. As a
result, traditional historiography should be modified
in the following three respects:
1.
The
"project" is a concept dating from the 17th and 18th centuries,
belonging in the same category as the "experiment" of the natural
scientist, the "case study" of the jurist, and the "sand-table
exercise" of the staff officer. Like the experiment, the case study, and
the sand-table exercise, the project method has its origin in the professionalization of an occupation. It was
introduced in the curriculum so that students could learn at school to
work independently and combine theory with practice. In contrast to experiment,
case study, and sand-table exercises, the project method is not a matter of
empirical, hermeneutical, or strategic studies, but of "construction"
(i.e., designing a house, building a playground, or producing a machine).
2.
The two basic
models of the project method still used today were already
developed in the 19th century. According to the older model (e.g., Woodward),
students first learn, in a course of instruction, the skills and knowledge that
they then apply independently and creatively in the practical project.
According to the more recent model (e.g., Richards), the project is moved from
the end of the unit to the center of teaching, in accordance with the
fundamental idea of the new psychology that "natural wholes" must be
the subject of learning if valuable interests and insights are to be developed.
Here, the course of instruction does not precede the project, but is integrated
into it.
3.
At the
beginning of the 20th century, a movement arose among American progressive
educators (e.g., Kilpatrick) that attempted to replace (a) the traditional
narrow definition of the project with a new, broad one, and (b)
"constructive" activity with "purposeful" action as the
crucial feature of the project method. This new definition was unable to gain
ascendancy in the United States, but in other countries it was accepted as an
innovation and a truly democratic achievement, with the paradoxical result that
in Europe today the broad "American" concept predominates, while in
America the narrow "European" approach plays the leading role.
The history of the project method makes it clear that the progressive
education movement at the turn of the century represented only one, and not
even the most important, international reform movement in modern times. Unlike Cremin (1961) and Röhrs (1977), for example, we cannot simply regard the
19th century as "prehistory" and the 20th century simply as
"post history." We must, with Jurgen
Oelkers (1996), see progressive education as
part of a continuous, albeit differentiated, development springing from
definite social and educational needs and reaching from the 17th century up to
the present. Only from this broad perspective can industrial education-like
professional and vocational education as a whole-be properly perceived as a
fecund source of modern progressive educational practices (e.g., Knoll,
1993b). However, the history of the project method also illustrates how
necessary it is to embed current thinking about educational reform within a
historical context. Otherwise, as Cuban
(1990) and Tyack
and Cuban (1995) have correctly observed, reform moves from initiative to
initiative without a clear understanding of why they dissipate and vanish. The
results are frequently disappointing and meaningless. In the case of the
project approach, a specific and indispensable method of
teaching is turned by Kilpatrick and his followers into a general and blurred
philosophy of education (Katz
& Chard 1989) .
2003: Howell, Robert T. "The Importance of the Project Method in
Technology Education",
Journal of
Industrial Teacher Education 40, no 3 (Spring 2003)
Documented
history traces the Project Method of teaching back to the 1830s in Europe.
In America -- when the project method emerged as a teaching technique in the
1920s -- it changed the way Industrial Arts was taught. After he observed
applications of the this new teaching that he found fault with, John Dewey
led a revolt which resulted in many changes. According to Barlow (Barlow,
1967), these changes represent a release from the formal and highly
structured nature of academic learning in the United States at the time.
Barlow notes "that the project developed as a natural evolution from both
practical and theoretical considerations." The project method would provide
students with social goals and allow them to engage in activities that would
require them to think and solve problems.
2005: Lewis Theodore and Zuga , Karen
F "A Conceptual Framework of Ideas and Issues in Technology Education"
2005 7 No. 1, Fall 1995 [get hypeerlink]
A Conceptual
Framework for Technology Education represents pieces and
parts of many curricular ideas, educational philosophies, and ideologies that
preceded it. Figure 5 is an attempt to contextualize those parts. Any effort of
this kind, and with the experts who were involved, will spring from a diverse
and multigirded philosophical base. Of prominence is
the philosophy of social reconstructionism
which recognizes that the human, armed with the knowledge of resources and
processes, can interact with necessary constituents to solve problems. The work
of Bonser almost 90 years ago
(Andrews & Erickson, 1976) provided
the framework for industrial arts focusing on technologies of the home.
This was in contrast to Selvidge's (1909) work that
resulted in the Standards of Attainment for the Industrial Arts as part of
vocational education. Bonser's perspective was
modernized by Snedden and Warner (1927) and then refocused to reflect the technologies of
dominant industries by Warner et al. (1952) . Warner et al.
also supported Wilbur's (1948) definition of industrial arts, which was paraphrased in Maley's (1973)
definition leading to the Maryland Plan. The Industrial Arts Curriculum Project
(IACP; Towers, Lux , & Ray, 1966) also has some
Warner influence as does the American Industry Project
(Face & Flug , 1967). Both those projects
influenced the < Jackson 's
Mill effort which in turn influenced the Conceptual
Framework effort. Some might say that this interpretation of our curricular
efforts has provided evidence of the incestuous nature of our field. I find it
difficult to deny that perspective. With the exception of IACP and the Standards
for Technological Literacy Project (ITEA, 2000), there have never been
substantive funds to "go outside" of our field for different views of industry or
technology. We are still in our infancy as a discipline and, as such, are still
trying to determine what we want to be when we grow up.
Matt,
H. D. A survey of the industrial arts libraries in junior and senior high
schools with are enrollment of 200 or ores located in the eastern half of Iowa . Unpublished thesis Library Iowa State College, < Ames , Iowa ,
190-v
From
nyt "new ideas for the training of the
child"
http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=FB0711FC3F5A15738DDDA90994D8415B898CF1D3
[ get the above from the google
newspaper archive]
Schmidt, F. J., Leisure-Time Bibliography, Industrial-Arts
Department. Iowa
State College, Ames , Iowa , 84 pages.
Its
subtitle tells us about its contents: "A guide to books and magazine articles
pertaining to leisure time and to avocational
interests related to industrial arts education".
from
nyt "new ideas for the training of the
child" http://select.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=FB0711FC3F5A15738DDDA90994D8415B898CF1D3
. people will continue to have an increased amount of
leisure time; remedy . train people in the proper use of leisure time,
. I have been encouraging the boys in the industrial-arts
classes at the Laboratory
School to establish home
workshops. .summarized in the following statements:
Formation
of National Homeworkshop Guild
From
google newspaper archive
|
